Biogenic nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, applications and scaling up limitations in water treatment

Abstract

Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted significant interest due to their unique chemical and physical properties. In this context, biogenic synthesis has emerged as a promising alternative, utilizing natural pathways (e.g., microorganisms and plants) to produce biomolecules such as polyphenols, vitamins, amino acids, and carbohydrates that can reduce and stabilize NP production. However, significant knowledge gaps remain, particularly regarding the interaction between biomolecules and metals, and their influence on the physicochemical properties of NPs. This review critically examines current biogenic synthesis methods and their applications in removing organic contaminants and inactivating microorganisms in water treatment. It also highlights the challenges and opportunities in this field. In terms of scalability, there are significant limitations currently. The variability in the composition of biological extracts makes it difficult to achieve reproducibility and control over NP size and morphology. Additionally, production processes tend to be slow and yields which lower than conventional chemical methods. Optimizing influential parameters such as biomolecule concentration, temperature, and pH remains a challenge. Finally, the lack of studies on toxicity and long-term stability hinders large-scale implementation.