Abstract:
Antibiotics enter into bacterial cells via protein channels that serve as low-energy pathways through the outer membrane, which is otherwise impenetrable. Insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the transport processes are vital for the development of effective antibacterials. A much-desired prerequisite is an accurate and reproducible determination of free energy surfaces for antibiotic translocation, enabling quantitative and meaningful comparisons of permeation mechanisms for different classes of antibiotics. Inefficient sampling along the orthogonal degrees of freedom, for example, in umbrella sampling and metadynamics approaches, is however a key limitation affecting the accuracy and the convergence of free energy estimates. To overcome this limitation, two sampling methods have been employed in the present study that, respectively, combine umbrella sampling and metadynamics-style biasing schemes with temperature acceleration for improved sampling along orthogonal degrees of freedom. As a model for the transport of bulky solutes, the ciprofloxacin–OmpF system has been selected. The well-tempered metadynamics approach with multiple walkers is compared with its “temperature-accelerated” variant in terms of improvements in sampling and convergence of free energy estimates. We find that the inclusion of collective variables governing solute degrees of freedom and solute–water interactions within the sampling scheme largely alleviates sampling issues. Concerning improved sampling and convergence of free energy estimates from independent simulations, the temperature-accelerated sliced sampling approach that combines umbrella sampling with temperature-accelerated molecular dynamics performs even better as shown for the ciprofloxacin–OmpF system.