Browsing by Author "Panwar, Jitendra"

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Aggregation induced phosphorescence’ active iridium(iii) complexes for integrated sensing and inhibition of bacterial growth in aqueous solution
(RSC, 2015) Panwar, Jitendra; Laskar, Inamur Rajaman; Chakraborty, Shamik
The present study attempts to develop a sensitive method to utilize ‘aggregation induced phosphorescence (AIP)’ active iridium(III) complexes as potential agents for “integrated” sensing and inhibition of bacterial growth in aqueous systems. The utilization of iridium(III) complexes for microbial detection in bodies of water has been demonstrated using Escherichia coli (E. coli) as a representative bacterial strain. The tested iridium(III) complexes also exhibited antibacterial properties against representative Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 4 and 8 μg mL−1, respectively. Microscopic observations indicated that these complexes could penetrate into the bacterial cells and result in subsequent cell death. Preliminary mechanistic studies showed that the DNA binding ability of the iridium(III) complexes is responsible for their antibacterial properties. The observed “dual” role in detection as well as inhibition of bacterial growth makes this study highly promising and encouraging for the exploration of the applicability of other less expensive metal complexes for monitoring and controlling the bacterial levels in drinking and sea water systems at a commercial level.
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) for Sustainable Soil and Plant Health in Salt-Affected Soils
(Semantic Scholar, 2017) Panwar, Jitendra
Continuous utilization of quality land in civilization and industrialization has gained interest in the utilization of salt-affected soils for crop production. However, crop growth and productivity is severely affected in saline soil. Many strategies were proposed to overcome the salt detrimental effects like development of salt-tolerant cultivars through breeding and/or genetic engineering, removal of excessive salt accumulation in soil, desalinization of irrigation water etc. Though these strategies are efficient but costly. Hence, a cost-effective new alternative attempt has taken up to mitigate soil salinity which involves inoculation of salt-tolerant arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in agricultural crop. Mechanisms of amelioration of salt stress in AMF-plant symbiosis involve enhancing the uptake of less mobile phosphorus, increasing nutrient acquisition, maintaining osmotic balance, enhancing antioxidants and polyamines, altering hormonal status, reducing ion toxicity and enhancing photosynthetic efficiency. AMF colonization induces an increase in root hydraulic conductivity of the host plants under osmotic stress conditions. Furthermore, AMF symbiosis also alters expression of cation channels and transporters, late embryogenesis abundant protein and aquaporins. AMF symbiosis not only changes plant physiology but also changes nutritional and physical properties of the rhizosphere. In the mycorrhizosphere, AMF interact with natural and introduced microorganisms and affect soil properties and quality. The quality of soil largely depends on its physical and chemical properties as well as diversity and activity of soil biota. Thus, AMF have been considered as bio-ameliorators of saline soils
Bacterial Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles
(Taylor & Francis, 2019) Panwar, Jitendra
There is growing need to develop clean, non-toxic and environmentally friendly (“green chemistry”) procedures for synthesis and assembly of nanoparticles (NPs). The use of biological organisms in this area is rapidly gaining importance due to their ecological significance, high success rates and ease in formation of nanoparticles. The advantages associated with the use of microorganisms, for biosynthesis of metal NPs, have attracted researchers to elucidate the mechanisms of metal ion uptake, its bioreduction, NP formation and decipher the role of microbial enzymes in the formation of NPs. Bacteria have been known to enrich ions, synthesize magnetite crystals, reduce Ag+ into metal particles, form nanoparticles as well as octahedral gold and, recently, ceramic to metal composites. This review focuses on the effective and efficient synthesis of metallic nanoparticles by bacteria while exploring their various prospective applications, as nanofertilizers and plant protectants, besides trying to understand the current scenario in the debates on the toxicity issues of these nanoparticles.
Biogenic Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles by Plant Extracts
(ACS, 2013-04) Panwar, Jitendra
In recent years, nanobiotechnology has emerged as an elementary division of modern science and a noval epoch in the fields of material science and is receiving global attention due to its ample applications. Various physical, chemical, and biological methods have been employed to synthesize nanomaterials. Biological systems such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, yeasts, viruses, and plants have been reported to synthesize various metal and metal oxide nanoparticles. Among these, biosynthesis of nanoparticles from plants seems to be a very effective method in developing a rapid, clean, nontoxic, and eco-friendly technology. The use of plant biomass or extracts for the biosynthesis of novel metal nanoparticles (silver, gold, platinum, and palladium) would be more significant if the nanoparticles are synthesized extracellularly and in a controlled manner according to their dispersity of shape and size. Owing to the rich biodiversity of plants, their potential use toward the synthesis of these nobel metal nanoparticles is yet to be explored. The aim of this review is to provide the recent trends involved in the phytosynthesis of nobel metal nanoparticles in the past decade.
Biosynthesized Protein-Capped Silver Nanoparticles Induce ROS-Dependent Proapoptotic Signals and Prosurvival Autophagy in Cancer Cells
(ACS, 2017) Panwar, Jitendra; Rahaman, Inamur; Chowdhury, Rajdeep
In recent years, the use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in biomedical applications has shown an unprecedented boost along with simultaneous expansion of rapid, high-yielding, and sustainable AgNP synthesis methods that can deliver particles with well-defined characteristics. The present study demonstrates the potential of metal-tolerant soil fungal isolate Penicillium shearii AJP05 for the synthesis of protein-capped AgNPs. The particles were characterized using standard techniques, namely, UV–visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The anticancer activity of the biosynthesized AgNPs was analyzed in two different cell types with varied origin, for example, epithelial (hepatoma) and mesenchymal (osteosarcoma). The biological NPs (bAgNPs) with fungal-derived outer protein coat were found to be more cytotoxic than bare bAgNPs or chemically synthesized AgNPs (cAgNPs). Elucidation of the molecular mechanism revealed that bAgNPs induce cytotoxicity through elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and induction of apoptosis. Upregulation of autophagy and activation of JNK signaling were found to act as a prosurvival strategy upon bAgNP treatment, whereas ERK signaling served as a prodeath signal. Interestingly, inhibition of autophagy increased the production of ROS, resulting in enhanced cell death. Finally, bAgNPs were also found to sensitize cells with acquired resistance to cisplatin, providing valuable insights into the therapeutic potential of bAgNPs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that provides a holistic idea about the molecular mechanisms behind the cytotoxic activity of protein-capped AgNPs synthesized using a metal-tolerant soil fungus.
Chemiresistive urea sensor based on a composite film of Activated charcoal and Zinc Oxide
(IEEE, 2024) Mishra, Puneet; Gupta, Navneet; Panwar, Jitendra; Mathur, Hitesh Datt
Detection of nitrogen content in the form of urea is essential as it confirms its fertility for agricultural practices. Herein, a report on a simple microwave decomposition method for the synthesis of hybrid nanomaterial (Zinc Oxide and Activated Charcoal) that shows a maximum sensitivity of ~87% at 100mM urea concentration with response time and recovery time of 6 min and 80 min, respectively. The urea sensing mechanism with pre-adsorbed oxygen ions on the surface of the composite was verified by measuring the change in intensity of CO2 signal upon exposure to urea solution using FTIR. Thus, the composite film acts as a low-cost non-enzymatic chemiresistive urea sensor with good sensitivity and reproducibility.
Deciphering temporal variations in the ultrastructure and chemical composition of leaf cuticular wax in xerophytic plants
(Springer, 2025-12) Panwar, Jitendra
Cuticular wax forms a protective outer layer on the aerial surfaces of land plants, shielding them against water loss and biotic stressors like microbial agents. This study investigates the seasonal variations in cuticular wax micromorphology, thickness, quantity and composition between two xerophytic species, Calotropis procera and Salvadora persica growing in the Indian Thar Desert. Microscopic analyses revealed distinct surface wax morphologies between the two species, with ovate crystalloids on C. procera and platelet-like aggregates on S. persica. Confocal microscopy showed a thinner cuticle layer in C. procera (~ 2 μm) in comparison to S. persica (~ 2 to 7 μm). Both species exhibited the highest wax content during the summer season, aligning with peak environmental stress conditions. Chemical analysis indicated seasonal shifts in major wax classes, with a predominance of alkanes and terpenoids during the high-temperature periods. Despite similar compositional trends across seasons, the two species displayed contrasting micromorphological patterns, highlighting species-specific adaptations. These findings underscore the functional significance of cuticular wax in enhancing drought resilience and thermal tolerance in xerophytic plants, offering valuable insights for understanding plant survival strategies in arid ecosystems.cccccccccccccccccc
Developing Disease-Suppressive Soil Through Agronomic Management
(Springer, 2015) Panwar, Jitendra
Soilborne plant pathogens are major limitation in most of the agroecosystems for production of sustainable yield. These pathogens produce resting bodies in the soil which are long lasting and difficult to eliminate. Various approaches have been used to prevent, mitigate, or control the plant diseases. Considering limitations in the practices for managing plant disease through genetic resistance in the host plants and use of synthetic chemicals, focus was given to the management of the plant and its environment through agronomic managements. Soil properties, soil microbiome and its diversity, and nature of the crops and its root system are altered for the development of suppressive soil to manage the soilborne pathogens through one or more mechanisms like antibiosis, allele-chemicals, competition for niche and nutrients, root camouflage, parasitism and induce resistance, etc. Agronomic management practices, viz., tillage, soil solarization, use of organic amendments, organic manures including green manures, crop rotation, bio-fertilizers and biocontrol agents, etc., manipulate the soil–plant–microbial system
Development of gold nanoparticle-fungal hybrid based heterogeneous interface for catalytic applications
(Elsiever, 2015-08) Panwar, Jitendra; Gangopadhyay, Subhashis
Unsupported and free gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) represent great potential in the field of catalysis. However, shortcomings like agglomeration and loss of the precious catalyst has encouraged the development of supported Au NPs as catalyst with increased activity, selectivity, ease of separation from the reaction mixture and recyclability. The present work demonstrates an eco-friendly, rapid and facile synthesis of catalytically active bio-supported Au NPs using a soil fungus, Aspergillus japonicus AJP01. The dual role of the fungal isolate in synthesis as well as immobilization of Au NPs is the remarkable feature of the study. The fungus successfully reduced Au(III) into Au NPs containing principally Au(0) with a small percentage of Au(I) as revealed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The particles were spherical in shape and well distributed on fungal mycelia with size ranging predominantly between 15 and 20 nm. The as-synthesized nanoparticle-fungal hybrid was found to be highly efficient in catalyzing sodium borohydride mediated reduction reactions of 4-nitrophenol and hexacyanoferrate(III). The versatility of the bionanocatalyst was further demonstrated by catalyzing the A3 coupling reactions for the synthesis of propargylamines.
Do physico-chemical properties of silver nanoparticles decide their interaction with biological media and bactericidal action? A review
(Elsiever, 2018-09) Panwar, Jitendra
The unprecedented increase in antibiotic resistance in this era has resuscitated the attention of scientific community to exploit silver and its various species as antimicrobial agents. Plenty of studies have been done to measure the antimicrobial potential of silver species (cationic silver, metallic Ag0 or silver nanoparticles, silver oxide particulates etc.) and indicated that membrane damage, oxidative stress, protein dysfunction and DNA damage to be the possible cause of injury to the microbial cell. However, the precise molecular mechanism of their mode of action has remained unclear, which makes an obstacle towards the generation of potential antibacterial agent against various pathogenic and multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria. In order to endeavor this issue, one should first have the complete understanding about the resistance mechanisms present in bacteria that can be a therapeutic target for the silver-based drug formulations. Apart from this, in-depth understanding of the interactions of various silver species (with the biological media) is a probable deciding factor for the synthesis of silver-based drug formulations because the particular form and physico-chemical properties of silver can ultimately decide their antimicrobial action. In context to above mentioned serious concerns, the present article aims to discuss the mechanisms behind the confrontation of bacteria against various drugs and the effect of physico-chemical properties of silver species on their bactericidal action as well as critically evaluates the available reports on bacterial transcriptomic and proteomic profiles upon the exposure of various silver species. Further, this review state the mechanism of action that needs to be followed for the complete understanding of toxic potential of silver nanoparticles, which will open a possibility to synthesize new silver nanoparticle based antimicrobial systems with desired properties to ensure their safe use, exposure over extended period and fate in human body and environment.
Does seed size and surface anatomy play role in combating phytotoxicity of nanoparticles?
(Springer, 2017) Panwar, Jitendra
Rapid utilization of nano-based products will inevitably release nanoparticles into the environment with unidentified consequences. Plants, being an integral part of ecosystem play a vital role in the incorporation of nanoparticles in food chain and thus, need to be critically assessed. The present study assesses the comparative phytotoxicity of nanoparticle, bulk and ionic forms of zinc at different concentrations on selected plant species with varying seed size and surface anatomy. ZnO nanoparticles were chosen in view of their wide spread use in cosmetics and health care products, which allow their direct release in the environment. The impact on germination rate, shoot & root length and vigour index were evaluated. A concentration dependent inhibition of seed germination as well as seedling length was observed in all the tested plants. Due to the presence of thick cuticle on testa and root, pearl millet (xerophytic plant) was found to be relatively less sensitive to ZnO nanoparticles as compared to wheat and tomato (mesophytic plants) with normal cuticle layer. No correlation was observed between nanoparticles toxicity and seed size. The results indicated that variations in surface anatomy of seeds play a crucial role in determining the phytotoxicity of nanoparticles. The present findings significantly contribute to assess potential consequences of nanoparticle release in environment particularly with major emphasis on plant systems. It is the first report which suggests that variations observed in phytotoxicity of nanoparticles is mainly due to the predominant differences in size and surface anatomy of tested plant seeds and root architecture.
Does silver in different forms affect bacterial susceptibility and resistance? A mechanistic perspective
(ACS, 2022-01) Panwar, Jitendra
The exceptional increase in antibiotic resistance in past decades motivated the scientific community to use silver as a potential antibacterial agent. However, due to its unknown antibacterial mechanism and the pattern of bacterial resistance to silver species, it has not been revolutionized in the health sector. This study deciphers mechanistic aspects of silver species, i.e., ions and lysozyme-coated silver nanoparticles (L-Ag NPs), against E. coli K12 through RNA sequencing analysis. The obtained results support the reservoir nature of nanoparticles for the controlled release of silver ions into bacteria. This study differentiates between the antibacterial mechanism of silver species by discussing the pathway of their entry in bacteria, sequence of events inside cells, and response of bacteria to overcome silver stress. Controlled release of ions from L-Ag NPs not only reduces bacterial growth but also reduces the likelihood of resistance development. Conversely, direct exposure of silver ions, leads to rapid activation of the bacterial defense system leading to development of resistance against silver ions, like the well-known antibiotic resistance problem. These findings provide valuable insight on the mechanism of silver resistance and antibacterial strategies deployed by E. coli K12, which could be a potential target for the generation of aim-based and effective nanoantibiotics.
Endophytic Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria as Biofertilizer
(Springer, 2012) Panwar, Jitendra; Jha, Prabhat Nath
Enhanced heavy metal removal using silver-yttrium oxide nanocomposites as novel adsorbent system
(CABI, 2017) Panwar, Jitendra; Pradhan, S.K.; Gupta, Suresh
The present study demonstrates development of silver-yttrium oxide nanopcomposites (SYONs) and its use as novel adsorbent for efficient removal of Cu(II), Cr(VI)and multiple metal ions from waste water. The nanocomposite was synthesized using solution combustion synthesis method and characterized using standard technique viz. with X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), zeta potential and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The particles were elliptical in shape with the size predominantly ranging between 41 and 70 nm. A series of experiments was performed to study the effect of various parameters (contact time, concentration of metal ions, pH, adsorbent dose, temperature) on the metal ion removal potential of SYONs. The maximum adsorption capacity for Cu(II) and Cr(VI) was obtained as 773 ± 4.94 mg g−1 and 720 ± 8.48 mg g−1 respectively. The equilibrium time of contact for adsorption was found as 720 min and adsorption of Cu(II) and Cr(VI) was found maximum at pH = 6. Thermodynamic studies revealed that the adsorption of Cu(II) and Cr(VI) on SYONs surface was an endothermic process
Functionalized Cu-based metal oxide nanoparticles with enhanced Cd+2 adsorption capacity and their ecotoxicity assessment by molecular docking
(Elsevier, 2022-04) Gupta, Suresh; Panwar, Jitendra
In the present study, synthesis of eco-friendly Cu-based metal oxides nanoparticles [CuO, Cu2O, and CuO&Cu2O nanoparticles (NPs)] without and with functionalization with Diethylene glycol (DEG) has been demonstrated. The synthesized NPs were screened for their ability to adsorb multiple heavy metal ions from an aqueous solution. Based on the maximum Cadmium (Cd+2) ion adsorption capacity, functionalized Cu2O (fCu2O) NPs were selected for the detailed characterization and batch studies. The average size of fCu2O NPs was found to be 57.4 ± 6.14 nm in comparison to NPs without capping (72.6 ± 5.19 nm). The experimental parameters viz. contact time, initial pH, and initial concentration were optimized, and the obtained results were interpreted using standard isotherms and kinetic models. The maximum Cd+2 adsorption on fCu2O NPs was observed at initial solution pH 7. The adsorption of Cd+2 was found to be decreased at acidic pH due to the protonation of functional groups present on the NPs surface. A maximum Cd+2 adsorption capacity of 204 ± 6.2 mg g−1 was obtained from the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. The crystal structure of NPs was prepared and docked with the protein targets of selected soil microbes in order to determine their ecotoxicity. The obtained results showed that NPs exhibited low affinity towards protein targets in comparison to the standard used. It suggests that NPs have less impact on the functionality of soil microbes and are thus safe for their disposal into the soil micro-environment.
Genomic Data Resources and Data Mining
(Springer, 2017) Panwar, Jitendra
Genome is considered as the carrier of hereditary information and the operative system of an organism. The genomic data are in the form of sequentially arranged nucleotide base pairs. The data mining of genome resources is chiefly based on computational tools acknowledged as computational genome annotation. The computational genome annotation may be either structural or functional. The structural annotation refers to the identification of hypothetical genes in a DNA sequence using computational algorithms, while the functional annotation is assigned as the functions to the predicted genes using sequence similarity searches against other genes of known function. The aim of this chapter is to focus on the genomic resources and mining of genomic databases using the computational tools.
Mechanistic insights on plant root colonization by bacterial endophytes: a symbiotic relationship for sustainable agriculture
(Springer, 2018) Panwar, Jitendra; Jha, Prabhat Nath
Plant–microbe and soil interactions are one of the oldest muse for multi-disciplinary researchers. Plant growth promoting microorganisms influence the host physiology by secreting regulatory chemical signals in the vicinity of plant roots and play a key role in the enhancement of plant growth and expansion. The present review deals with the in-depth understanding of steps involved in host tissues colonization by bacterial endophytes. The molecular insights of these events, particularly for endophytic bacteria, are poorly documented till date. The endophytic bacteria must coexist with the host plant and capable of colonizing the internal plant tissues without being recognized as a pathogen. A proper understanding of exchange of signals between the host plant and bacterial communities is required which may facilitate the development of new strategies to promote beneficial interactions between them. This knowledge can be instrumental in agricultural practices as well as for phytoremediation of pollutants. Keeping these facts in mind, the present review attempts to explore the systematic understanding of steps involved and molecular insights of plant colonization events by endophytic bacteria. We conclude that molecular mechanisms and factors affecting endophytic bacterial colonization deserve more research attention in order to exploit their beneficial aspects for sustainable agriculture and environment.
Nano-fertilizers and Their Smart Delivery System
(Springer, 2015) Panwar, Jitendra
Outburst of world population in the past decade has forced the agricultural sector to increase crop productivity to satisfy the needs of billions of people especially in developing countries. Widespread existence of nutrient deficiency in soils has resulted in great economic loss for farmers and significant decreases in nutritional quality and overall quantity of grains for human beings and livestock. Use of large-scale application of chemical fertilizers to increase the crop productivity is not a suitable option for long run because the chemical fertilizers are considered as double-edged swords, which on the one hand increase the crop production but on the other hand disturb the soil mineral balance and decrease soil fertility. Large-scale application of chemical fertilizers results in an irreparable damage to the soil structure, mineral cycles, soil microbial flora, plants, and even more on the food chains across ecosystems leading to heritable mutations in future generations of consumers.In recent years, nanotechnology has extended its relevance in plant science and agriculture. Advancement in nanotechnology has improved ways for large-scale production of nanoparticles of physiologically important metals, which are now used to improve fertilizer formulations for increased uptake in plant cells and by minimizing nutrient loss. Nanoparticles have high surface area, sorption capacity, and controlled-release kinetics to targeted sites making them “smart delivery system.” Nanostructured fertilizers can increase the nutrient use efficiency through mechanisms such as targeted delivery, slow or controlled release. They could precisely release their active ingredients in responding to environmental triggers and biological demands. In recent lab scale investigations, it has been reported that nano-fertilizers can improve crop productivity by enhancing the rate of seed germination, seedling growth, photosynthetic activity, nitrogen metabolism, and carbohydrate and protein synthesis. However, as being an infant technology, the ethical and safety issues surrounding the use of nanoparticles in plant productivity are limitless and must be very carefully evaluated before adapting the use of the so-called nano-fertilizers in agricultural fields.In this chapter, we emphasize on the formulation and delivery of nano-fertilizers, their uptake, translocation, and fate in plants as well as their effect on plant physiology and metabolism. Ethical and safety issues regarding the use of nanotechnology in agriculture are also discussed.
Natural occurrence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a dominant cultivable diazotrophic endophytic bacterium colonizing Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.
(Elsiever, 2013) Jha, Prabhat N.; Panwar, Jitendra
Endophytic microbial communities can have strong influence on the growth of their host plants. The present study reports a diazotrophic endophytic bacterial species that colonizes predominantly Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) and remains stabilized throughout the latter's various growth stages under field conditions. Qualitative and quantitative changes in the endophytic bacterial population structure were examined during the plant growth period at regular intervals of 7 days up to harvesting. DNA fingerprinting (ERIC-PCR) was used as a biomarker to track the identity of various isolates obtained at different time intervals. Identification of representative bacterial species corresponding to different ERIC types was made on the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Based on the colony forming unit (cfu) count of bacterial isolates observed at various growth stages, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PM389 was found to be the dominant diazotrophic species among the cultivable endophytes colonizing pearl millet. The population of P. aeruginosa was detected in the host 21 days after sowing (DAS), indicating its entry in plant roots from soil and suggesting its non-vertical transfer in pearl millet. Moreover, an upward migration of this dominant diazotrophic bacterial species to shoots was observed with the plant growth. Further evaluation of P. aeruginosa PM389 revealed its various plant growth promoting properties viz. nitrogen fixation, mineral phosphate solubilization, siderophore production and antagonistic properties.
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering
(Elsiever, 2020) Panwar, Jitendra
Increasing population, industrialization, globalization, and expanding economy throughout the world have led to the increased consumption of various consumer goods, of which, plastics contribute a large proportion. Due to properties such as low cost, ease of manufacturing, hydrophobicity, inertness, and durability, plastic goods have become an integral part of the daily routine of all human beings. Various types of plastics contribute to different applications, such as in carry-bags, containers, bottles, pipes, tubing, cable, rope, flooring, furniture, and so on. However, the demand for plastics has outpaced efficient disposal practices causing increased accumulation in landfills and water bodies. The accumulated plastic waste releases toxic compounds such as dioxins and furans, which are potent carcinogens and can cause serious health issues, including neurological disorders, disruption of the endocrine system, and infertility. In addition, both land and aquatic animals mistakenly consume plastic wastes. Hence, proper disposal strategies need to be practiced without the release of any harmful chemicals. Biodegradation can prove to be helpful, as the products of the reaction are completely harmless and contribute to the biogeochemical cycle of the Earth. In this chapter, we discuss the various types of plastics, their disposal practices, and the ability of microorganisms to consume plastics as a sole carbon source, leading to their degradation via aerobic or anaerobic pathways.